Delivering energy access for all full transcript
Host [00:00:01]: You are listening to the Make Change Happen podcast from IIED. Access to electricity in the poorest countries has begun to accelerate and renewable energy is making gains in the electricity sector. Despite this progress around a billion people remain without access to electricity while some 3 billion are without access to clean cooking fuels and technologies.
Off-grid and mini-grid solutions can be designed to provide affordable electricity to poor communities in hard-to-reach areas, but governments hoping to harness these technologies to achieve universal access to energy by 2030 need to find new ways to attract more finance.
To discuss these and other related issues in this podcast our director of communications Liz Carlile talks with three expert colleagues from our energy team.
Liz Carlisle [00:00:54]: Hi and welcome to IIED's podcast, Make Change Happen. I'm your host today and my name is Liz Carlisle and I'm director of the Communications Group here at IIED.
We're really excited to have this new podcast under way. We've done one episode – any listeners out there who've heard that episode, thank you for taking the time to listen and we'd very much welcome feedback.
But today let me welcome my colleagues from IIED who are in the energy team, so I'm joined today by Ben Garside who is the principal researcher and energy team lead here at IIED – welcome Ben, and I know that you've worked for a number of years in international development but I think before that it's good for listeners to know that you do have a kind of engineering background and you've worked in telecoms and ICTs, so you have that very nice mix between technical experience and latterly a big focus on, kind of, people-centered approaches to development.
Ben Garside [00:02:05]: Thanks Liz.
Liz Carlisle [00:02:06]: I'm also joined by Nipunika Perera - welcome Nipunika. You're a researcher here at IIED in the energy team and my understanding is that you were an engineer – you qualified as an engineer - and that you have previously been an energy consultant and also worked at Practical Action, so you've looked very particularly at energy access and links between gender and also with climate resilience and adaptation.
Nipunika Perera [00:02:38]: Yes, that's right.
Liz Carlisle [00:02:39]: And last, but definitely not least, Kevin Johnstone, who's also a researcher here at IIED and, looking at your bio Kevin, you talk about yourself as a kind of energy access specialist. I understand you've been looking particularly in fragile and transitional economies and really understanding the relationship between sort of grids, mini grids, home systems and kind of finance and delivery models. It all sounds pretty technical but I know you're gonna make it really interesting.
Kevin Johnstone [00:03:12]: Absolutely!
Liz Carlisle [00:03:14]: Good, thank you, so let's kick-off. Ben, why is energy important?
Ben Garside [00:03:22]: Actually, energy for a lot of people... I have people approaching me saying 'is energy really important, given all of the other priorities if you're looking at for example
communities in Africa?' And, I mean first of all at a global level there has been a new recognition so we have the Sustainable Development Goals now: energy wasn't recognised in the previous Millennium Development Goals, but we see now the Sustainable Development Goal 7 is an energy goal, which has three different components and one of them is around energy access, which is the predominant focus that we have here at IIED.
And I think there's also increasing recognition within the SDG system that energy is an enabler for a lot of the other goals, but then equally when you go down to the community level and ask people 'what are your priorities?', often energy doesn't come up as the top - or even in the top three, four, five - and then you say to them, 'well, you're holding a phone in your hand. Where did the power come from that?' so there's a more in-depth conversation, a more informed conversation.
When that takes place at the community level people really identify then with energy within health, within education, within livelihoods, jobs and income, and how there is potential there to to improve lives.
Liz Carlisle [00:05:03]: So energy is obviously a critical issue, but I guess also energy means different things to different people?
Ben Garside [00:05:11]: I mean 'energy' is quite a generic term, it's often used interchangeably with electricity but it's not the same. Of course energy can be for transport, for where we have more increasingly we have electric transport but a lot of it isn't.
We have energy for cooking and actually when you look at the statistics out there, there are three billion people without access to modern cooking services and 1 billion without access to electricity, so we really have to be quite specific about what we mean and more importantly what the energy is to be used for, to to make changes.
Liz Carlisle [00:05:54]: Well, we can think about it another way - I guess when we look at these big global statistics they're big numbers that are thrown out but they mean different things, and my understanding is for that 1 billion, it's that these are people who don't easily get access to the big grid system and for many people, 'energy' means connection to a big grid. Kevin, you know about access, how does that sit with this 1 billion?
Kevin Johnstone [00:06:23]: Yeah, so I think with the 1 billion, a large portion of those people don't have access, for example to the grid, and in fact live far from grid areas.
Usually the grid, as we call it, is kind of more in urban areas, it's more centralised, it's more expensive in a lot of ways, but kind of with energy and if you're talking specifically about electricity, we have this kind of spectrum of access. So we measure it through different tiers of access, as we call it, so tier one is very low powered, probably a solar lantern for example, and we go up through steps all the way up to what they call tier five, which is kind of the grid quality 24/7 electricity access.
And usually we call the technologies that are kind of tier 1, tier 2 and up to even 2 or 3 kind of off-grid technologies, whereas the main grid as I mentioned, is kind of in urban settings - these off-grid technologies can reach people away from the grid and they also provide different levels of service from basic lighting/phone charging all the way up to kind of what they call mini-grid systems, which connects entire villages and provide more substantial power generation for income, for livelihoods.
Liz Carlisle [00:07:54]: Nipunika, have you any thoughts? For you, what would this this connection, connectivity, the potential to be connected?
Nipunika Perera [00:08:03]: Yeah, from the experience I've had, particularly having done work in countries like Nepal, is that a lot of the people who are not connected or left behind, for instance, are those who live in the most remote areas or others who are sort of the poorest communities who live under the grid - where the grid goes over them.
And connecting both what Kevin and Ben have been discussing, connectivity doesn't necessarily always translate into impacts - there's a lot of different things that needs to happen to maximise the impact of connection that people have.
So particularly, I've just returned from Nepal and I've been discussing with quite a few people who work on providing energy services on a daily basis to these rural communities. And a lot of the challenges they face is around ensuring that people are actually using energy for something impactful, for something that they can actually benefit from.
So, for instance, understanding where should the lighting go in the house? Is it in the kitchen where the cooking happens or is it in an area where they play card games? Or how do you really ensure that people are benefiting from that, and also maximising that impact? So particularly different types of models that are used to deliver energy services needs to start considering these social-cultural aspects, and we've been engaging very closely with the health sector and a specific nurse we've been talking to called Jefferson, who's working in a dispensary in a rural health centre.
According to him, often health facilities are built without considering the reality of the energy needs for them to deliver health services, so for instance when it comes to providing maternity health services, vaccinations clinics or even specific testing for blood testing, or other testing facilities that they're meant to do as a rural health clinic, they struggle to deliver it because energy is not often thought through at the very start of it.
So there's a lot of different things that needs to come together to actually maximise impacts from energy.
[Music]
Liz Carlisle [00:10:31]: So it sounds really complex. So we've got the complexity of people needing to connect in different ways, and then from different places, and then we've got the complexity of trying to understand very particular needs and the kind of capacity to make the most of that energy.
Ben Garside [00:10:48]: Absolutely. Absolutely, and the need to integrate the way you do the planning. I mean Nipunika's just talked about health - of course you have education, there are different sectors where energy has strong potential to be improving the way that the services are being delivered work - and that's not even to begin to talk about livelihoods. Agriculture, livestock: a lot of the potential there where energy can enable.
So what we've been finding and sort of getting practical – within Kenya we've been doing some work with CAFOD and Caritas Kitui in partnership with the Kenyan government, and what we're doing there is mapping out these needs at the community level, so not just asking people what are your needs - it's having a more informed process.
It takes a little bit more time, you spend a bit more time on planning but the idea is, as Nipunika was saying, you try to get deeper inside the gaps there to do with energy, the gaps there to do with non-energy, so that the solutions really have impact. And doing that in a way that can scale as well.
Of course, doing an in-depth process in every single village can be time-consuming so the question is how do you bring out some of those needs and benefit from economies of scale so that you can cluster them together.
Liz Carlisle [00:12:19]: So it also seems interesting to me that's also about getting people out of their kind of sector boxes and talking together.
Ben Garside [00:12:27]: Yes. Very challenging within government, I have to say. But of course from the community perspective what's a 'sector' and why is that relevant to them?
Liz Carlisle [00:12:35]: So I assume you're bringing different stakeholders into the conversation wherever you can.
Ben Garside [00:12:41]: Yes.
Liz Carlisle [00:12:42]: And I know that that's something we think, dealing with difficult challenges today, is going to be more and more important – that change can only take place where we have different stakeholders. You're thinking about need, thinking about the relationship between their service and how something is used.
Ben Garside [00:13:00]: And I'm an engineer, so you know of course there's a little bit of a bias there from the history side, but there's a real need to... you look at energy sector planning and often it is the engineers, and they are thinking, as Kevin was talking about earlier, about the roll-out of the big grid, how many megawatts or gigawatts can be generated for that grid ? Important things but it's not really bringing in the end needs and the planning across from energy into the other sectors that needs to go in part and parcel with that, if you're going to really deliver the impacts.
Liz Carlisle [00:13:42]: So one of the things that when I've heard you speak before Ben, that I find really interesting is this point about, sort of, productive uses of energy. So, you know I'm imagining that you know when you're thinking about planning, and you're thinking about who's using what, you're thinking about different kinds of use. So can you can us a little bit about that?
Ben Garside [00:14:07]: Well actually Kevin's been leading that work within the Tanzania Energy Change Lab programme that we have, so maybe he can talk a little bit about the activities we've been doing on the ground.
Kevin Johnstone [00:14:18]: Sure, so in the Energy Change Lab programme, which is a programme we run with our partner Hivos, we look at a number of different energy streams but in particular I've been working on the productive uses of energy work stream, which is looking at how electricity as an input can be used to increase productivity and income in remote communities.
So basically, increasing economic activity in these communities which also helps pay for the electricity itself. So we've been working with two different mini-grid developers in Tanzania implementing what we call prototypes and experimenting around some of the challenges that mini grid developers are facing.
So what we've seen and learned is that the mini grid infrastructure once installed doesn't kind of generate demand on its own; there's a lot of supporting activities that need to be applied in communities to help stimulate demand for these electricity services so that they can pay for themselves.
Liz Carlisle [00:15:30]: So that point I think that you made, Ben, the other day where you put a pole in and you're considered connected even if you're sort of 80 metres away?
Kevin Johnstone [00:15:38]: Yeah, it's a really good point and that talks about kind of government definitions of what makes access and a lot of the discussions around the pole issue is usually around grid extensions.
So there's also all these issues around getting access to that pole, for example. So a lot of the work in the Energy Change Lab programme we've been looking at prototyping ideas and experimenting around some of these issues of how to get access to that pole.
So we've been working with two mini grid developers in Tanzania to look at the kind of a more holistic approach in terms of stimulating demand, so if we have an entrepreneur for example who wants to buy a milling machine, that entrepreneur needs access to finance and whether the finance is a savings of his own or her own, or it's access to some kind of microfinance, that appliance or equipment needs to be financed.
Then we have the technical skills to actually run that appliance, so the entrepreneur needs to understand how the appliance works, how it operates, how to maintain it efficiently - these kinds of skills. Then there's the skills around operating a business itself in terms of keeping books, the accounting and all these kind of business operations skills that need to be in place. And then of course you have the access to appliances themselves, so in a lot of these kind of remote communities there are some appliances but they're quite old, very inefficient if they're available, and this also kind of links to the issue around market access.
Supply chains bringing appliances hundreds of kilometres from usually the capital into these remote communities over very difficult terrain, usually not paved roads, and then how do you get technicians to service these kinds of equipment.
The technology is quite proven in the field; it works very well, but there's a lot of ideas on the mini grid itself - not being able to run some machinery, which can be true for a lot of the smaller mini grids, which can be an issue in terms of if you're promoting productive uses of energy, so there's a question of whether or not these smaller grids are actually a viable business model to be pursued.
Then you have questions around the tariff: many of these mini grids have much higher tariffs due to the technology, they don't have the scale that a large grid has as well and many - in fact most - of the grids around the world are quite subsidised as a public service, so many of these mini grids are private developers, so not necessarily subsidised through government schemes. So you have a lot of customers who will say you know, "my aunt in the capital city, their tariff is quite low and I'm paying, you know, two, three, four, five times' more than they are.
So there's issues around these kinds of perceptions of equality in terms of the technology.
[Music]
Liz Carlisle [00:19:09]: I mean I really like the sound of the Energy Change Lab. Can you tell people a little bit about how that works?
Ben Garside [00:19:20]: I think it's quite a dynamic - when we say lab, it's not a technical lab - it's a social innovation lab, so we do work with technical partners like the mini-grid companies, but at a sort of national level we have a dialogue platform and the purpose of that is to be bringing... it's a demand driven around key issues within the sector, so this is sort of so-called productive uses of energy for income that's one of the one of the main themes within the lab, and we bring together people from inside the sector and outside the sector, so again it's that sort of cross sector building of understanding.
But to avoid it just being a talk shop we have these ground-level prototypes - so what can we learn quickly? How can we work with communities to understand some of the issues Kevin was talking about? It's not just building the demand for the productive uses, it's helping manage the demand. So for example you don't want a very small village to have 20 barber shops. When one entrepreneur sees another one there's a tendency to be a copycat culture. So how do you engage with the community to manage that? How do you understand some of those social issues or culturally embedded issues, and it can be just contextual from seeing other things.
Kevin mentioned that people think mini grids are inferior - even a household solar panel, so just a panel on the roof with batteries providing lighting, there are some good systems out there. There are a lot, a lot, of bad systems out there and informal products coming in from China and so people have the perception that solar doesn't really work, so you're actually starting from beneath a level playing field.
So how do you gather all those lessons - and that's what we're doing with the lab through these prototyping processes - and bring them up to a dialogue platform making sure that those voices and the experience from the ground are really embedded so that you can change the way the design of systems work and the way that policy and regulation happens.
Liz Carlisle [00:21:26]: Nipunika, have you anything to add on this? Have you seen similar approaches in Nepal - you were talking about the trip you've just come back from?
Nipunika Perera [00:21:33]: Yeah, I think one of the main things I was wanting to add to the discussion was around the importance of understanding the different end users as well.
Often, for instance, men and women think differently so their needs could be quite different as well. Looking at the same example of where do you need the light in the room - the woman might want it in a different place to a man. So how do you understand those dynamics and actually make sure that it's leading to the impact that they are expecting at the household? Managing expectations is quite important when you're engaging with communities to provide energy services. In the PUE examples we also work with female entrepreneurs.
Sometimes training needs might be slightly different or maybe more mentoring is needed, and there might be social barriers that actually prevent women from engaging more at the entrepreneur level. So this is also again something that the Energy Change Lab has been looking at. Lots of things are happening, lots of things have been piloted also in Nepal.
Some of the work we are trying to do now is to understand all these dynamics and try to fit in to the changing aspects in these countries we're working in.
Countries like Nepal are going through massive changes in terms of their policies and their governance structures so we are trying to see how can learnings on the ground actually influence the decision-making happening at the moment.
[Music]
Liz Carlisle [00:23:06]: So I'm also thinking about this question: of the three billion people who still don't have access to clean safe cooking.
Kevin Johnstone [00:23:15]: That's right, yeah.
Liz Carlisle [00:23:16]: It's still quite an astonishing statistic and I guess that has huge energy implications, and presumably huge gender implications. What have we got to do to understand how energy - or how the right kind of affordable clean energy if you're thinking about SDG7 - how do we get that in the cooking space?
Kevin Johnstone [00:23:42]: In terms of a climate perspective we have issues around what fuels are being used, and the infrastructure that's being developed around those fuels. So if you're talking about gas, for example, you have to invest a large amount in the infrastructure, around getting that gas into the various communities, into urban centres etc. But also, for example, wood can be a huge element to deforestation.
As we've seen in Tanzania, this is affecting communities that are dependent on wood, for example. But that doesn't necessarily mean wood is bad, because there's also sustainably harvested wood which takes a lot of investment as well, a lot of resources and time and these kinds of issues.
You've got briquettes made from agricultural wastes which can help farmers with building extra value from their harvest but feeding into the greenhouse gas emissions. Forests are large carbon sinks and a lot of them are being cut down for wood, for timber, for fuel, all these other kind of cross-cutting issues.
Ben Garside [00:25:02]: I think cooking has been a very tough nut to crack and that does tend to be for a variety of reasons, including this big sector focus that we mentioned earlier, more of a focus on electricity.
When, as you say, there's 3 billion rather than 1 billion in the cooking space, at a local level you really have to be understanding the way people cook and how they cook and who makes the decisions at the household level.
We know generally men have more power on those decisions, particularly on spending, but then there's also general cultural attitudes. If you live in a rural area and you gather firewood, your perception is that firewood is a right, it's free, so getting people to then be willing to pay for a cooking service, even if it's subsidised, is quite challenging. So there's a lot of behaviour understanding that really needs to go on there and I think within the cooking sector there's been quite a lot of focus on the technical or the technology side.
What we need to do is deploy, for example, gas and there have been good success stories on that, without really thinking about even if you do have gas, even if you're willing to pay for gas, you might be actually using the gas because it helps speed up your cooking so your priority is speed and efficiency rather than health.
Now one of the main reasons that money is going into that sector is from a health perspective, and women and children breathing in fumes. But what you'll see often when you go, and we've been to many, many small houses where people are cooking day-to-day, you'll see that the wood traditional three stone fire is being used right next to the more modern appliance.
So you get both, two different preferences for different tastes, more speed, more efficiency, so really getting behind those things in terms of really understanding so that the solution is then designed in a more holistic way.
[Music]
Liz Carlisle [00:27:24]: So, big challenges. I was reading that of all the - and maybe you can correct me if I'm wrong - but the kind of global energy funding about, is it 98.7 per cent goes to the grid and something like 1.3 per cent to off grid? I'm assuming that both in terms of the productive uses of energy and energy for cooking, and this 1 billion people who aren't connected, I'm assuming that this kind of off-grid funding is critical and that's perhaps what you were talking about in terms of the kind of finance models. So if we wanted to really make a big change here, what is it that's got to happen?
Kevin Johnstone [00:28:13]: I think there's a number of different finance models that will work for different contexts and maybe step one is looking at what has worked and what has not worked well in these different contexts, identifying those characteristics and then using those lessons and applying them to other places.
So to take a step back and look at the large picture, if we're aiming for universal access everyone has at least Tier one, basic lighting access by 2030.
The research shows that we need over 50 billion dollars a year, which includes grid and off-grid but if you're looking purely at off-grid we'll need about 20 billion or so per year.
Currently we're nowhere near that in any way - it's a couple hundred million per year. In fact, corporate level investments, especially into some of these solar home system kind of lighting and phone charging systems, has risen to two billion but it's taken 10 years to reach there so we still have a really long way to go.
But it's a promising path forward in terms of bringing in more money into the sector so to fill this huge - billions and billions - financing gap, in order to reach by 2030 for SDG7, one promising method is through blended finance: that's using public money to try and attract more private investor money, through what they call structured funds that have different levels of risk for different levels of investors' appetite for risk.
One promising way of doing that is Sun Funder which is a financial intermediary, has written a paper that said basically they've been able to use grant money to multiply their investments by 11 into their funds. So blended finances has a promising future for off-grid access.
There's also the idea that more public money needs to go into off-grid. A lot of on-grid systems are subsidised so there's much discussion around subsidising off-grid technologies and especially in terms of what some people call smart subsidies, or maybe targeted subsidies, especially for remote communities that may not be able to afford or cannot have the support services needed to support, as we're talking about productive uses of energy, in order to reach these people there needs to be some kind of targeted subsidy which requires probably alignment with government policy. In that light we also have to look at co-ordinating planning between grid and off-grid.
The grid in many countries will not be extended in time - it's too costly. So if we can get better planning between either public sponsored mini-grids, private mini-grids, whatever, it will take in the different contexts. There needs to be better co-ordination and planning in order to ensure that the money's used effectively and efficiently.
Ben Garside [00:31:40]: We've just done a big piece of research on this called Moving More Money about this sort of aggregation idea. As Kevin was saying, it's important to have more money but it's also, to be fair, well, you can see why it's easier for money to go into the large-scale infrastructure - it's one big transaction. You have big power stations, but with off-grid you have many, many millions of different small-scale energy initiatives that need to be started up in order to solve this 1 billion people gap.
Liz Carlisle [00:32:17]: Back to this challenge that we think about a lot in IIED, which is how to get money to where it matters most.
Ben Garside [00:32:24]: Absolutely, and it's not only the money with these aggregators. What we've been finding is that each of the ones we looked at is working in a different way. The aggregation of things like capacity building technical assistance, information sharing, even logistics, these types of things matter as well.
That sort of economy of scale you can get across aggregation for those types of functions has really helped - but a lot, lot more needs to be done, both in terms of the funding but also the way that the policy instruments work together with the finance to help get that money down and the right sort of implementation models, we call energy delivery models, the planning around that, that I was talking about earlier, so that we can really see impacts on some of the poorest people.
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Liz Carlisle [00:33:23]: Two things I think have come out of today's conversation - and this is the importance of planning, really trying to understand what it is people need energy for and making sure the right conversations happen, the right capacity and the right understanding of need drives that. Then I think I'm hearing this question of finance: not only is there not enough yet in the right places but there is a deal of complexity in understanding the different kind of models and mechanisms that we can use to do that.
Thank you for that. I wondered if we could finish with perhaps a comment on thinking, I sort of threatened you with a change question earlier, but I'm also thinking that people might like to be thinking about energy in relation to climate change. We know that we have got to support climate change, we know that energy is - I suppose global greenhouse gas emissions, isn't it over sixty per cent is energy? So we need to build up renewables and we're only at around 17 per cent, I think?
So where in your thinking, in your energy discussions, how does this sit and align with the climate emergency?
Nipunika Perera [00:34:42]: A lot of the off-grid technologies that are being pushed are renewable-focused. In order to reach the 1 billion who currently don't have access to electricity, grid extensions are happening but you need more resilient systems to reach those communities who are out of reach and in most of the countries they are in very remote areas.
There's a lot of issues around access. From a climate mitigation perspective, off-grid technologies really contribute to these countries who need to now bridge this gap of energy access by pushing for more and more renewables. And often it is a main part of it and in terms of climate adaptation where communities are very poor, rural communities are currently facing climate issues because of droughts and other issues so that there is the opportunity for using off-grid renewable energy technologies and it needs to be looked at more to see how it really contributes to climate adaptation and resilience of these communities.
But from a mitigation perspective again, in countries like Bangladesh where the emissions are significantly low compared to more developed countries but there is a huge community still wanting access or still left behind without access. There's a huge need for actually promoting more renewable energy systems and there is a lot going on. For instance through programmes done by IDCOL, Infrastructure Development Company Limited in Bangladesh, promoting solar mini-grids. Some of these makers also used for fuelling electric vehicles, electric taxis and all that.
So yes, there's a huge potential and it's something that countries have started thinking through. I don't know if there's any experience from Africa.
Ben Garside [00:36:46]: Well, I think as you're saying the important thing really is some level of inclusion, so at the local level we have to think about how people get access. A lot of that is already starting to be delivered through renewable energy.
Then we need to build in that resilience component so that we're planning, and those sort of local planning tools that we mentioned that we've been working on, that helps because if you're thinking about solutions more holistically you have to be thinking about what's happening with the climate.
Whilst we're planning our water pump for that solution but then if you go back to the big infrastructure and the main grid and that's the biggest opportunity for mitigation of climate emissions, there's a lot of pressure out there and there needs to be more, increasing pressure - on the divest/invest agenda, so really putting pressure on for the UK government, for the African Development Bank, the World Bank, to be not investing in coal, to be not investing unless there's good reason in some of the still carbon- emitting, the so-called less carbon emitting.
So there's a lot of that but then we need to be ensuring that it's happening within, if we're talking about green economies, that it's inclusive green economies.
So we're not just saying that the greening should happen without the access and the impacts for some of the poorest who of course generally didn't create the climate problem.
Liz Carlisle [00:38:23]: What I'm hearing though, which is good news, is that the approaches, the things we're thinking about, the ways in which we're thinking about this, very closely align to the way we need to respond to climate challenges and by doing that in a holistic way we've got an opportunity to build benefits all around.
Well, I think I'm going to say thank you to you all for a really interesting conversation. I hope our listeners have enjoyed it – I certainly have.
I think actually what it's made me realise, particularly from the kind of productive uses of energy and the whole cooking dimension, is that I personally need to go home and understand a lot better about where my energy needs are, what am I contributing or what am I over-using or how am I going to respond to this? I realise that I make assumptions because I turn on the light but I need to understand this a lot better and I've really enjoyed our discussion
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Host [00:39:28]: Find out more about Nipunika, Ben and Kevin's work and the issues discussed today: visit www.iied.org/energy.
You'll also find recent briefings and papers on our Publications Library at pubs.iied.org/energy.
You have been listening to the MakeChange Happen podcast from IIED, the International Institute for Environment and Development. The podcast is produced by our in-house communications team. For more information about IIED and our work please visit our website at www.iied.org.
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